Production process of bagel

Bagels are commonly hard rolls which are shaped like a donut i.e., circular with a hole in the center. They are made of raised dough in a process which includes simmering in boiling water which is followed by baking.

Bagels have a very simple formulation similar to simple bread or roll formulas (i.e. flour, salt, yeast, and water).

Mixing of a low-absorption bagel dough is very energy intensive. It is essential that the bagel dough is properly mixed as the gluten needs to be fully developed. The dough is mixed on low to medium speed until it is extensible. Optimum final dough temperature is 78°–82°F (25°–28°C).

Makeup is carried out after giving the dough little or no floor time. Bagels can be formed manually or by automated machines, which produce a more uniform shape. Automated lines use a rotary knife divider with a former. A typical scaling weight is three ounces (eighty-five grams). The bagel is just a clump of dough at this point.

Retarding is an important step for flavor development and dough relaxation. Long retarding times ensure a flavorful product as a result of fermentation by yeast and lactic acid bacteria. Retarding time is typically 12 to 18 hours at 35°–42°F (2°–6°C).

Proofing conditions depend on whether the product was retarded. If retarded, the bagels are allowed to sit at room temperature for thirty minutes to warm up, covered to prevent drying. Then they are proofed for twenty to thirty minutes at 85°–90°F (29°–32°C) and 65–75 percent RH. If bagels are not proofed properly then they will not rise to the surface when boiled. Over proofed bagels tend to collapse when removed from water.

Boiling. The dough pieces are next cooked in water at 212 °F. for 30 seconds to 3 minutes until they float on the surface of the water. Slightly longer times may be needed for larger bagels. After boiling, a short drying time is necessary. Boiling gelatinizes the starch on the surface of the dough giving a glossy exterior which distinguishes them from regular bread rolls. The boiling process also sets the outside structure of the roll so the bagel retains its shape during the baking process.

Baking. The bagels are dried and then baked. Baking times normally range from 17 to 25 minutes. Baking temperatures range from 400° to 450°F (205° to 235°C).
Production process of bagel

Manufacturing of High-Fructose Corn Syrup

High-Fructose Corn Syrup (HFCS) is an extra sweet, inexpensive sweetener used mostly in soft drinks and fruit juices.

Corn is the primary source of high fructose corn syrup in the US. High fructose corn syrup is a liquid alternative sweetener to sucrose that is made from corn, the “king of crops”. It is a caloric sweetener, made from ordinary corn starch, which substitutes for sugar in a wide range of manufactured products.

Corn starch composed of glucose molecules of infinite length, consists of amylose and amylopectin and requires heat, caustic soda and/or hydrochloric acid plus the activity of three different enzymes to break it down into the simple sugars glucose and fructose present in HFCS.

The production of HFCS and corn wet milling are typically an integrated process. The wet milling process separates the corn kernel into its four principal components: the germ, hull, gluten, and starch. High fructose corn syrups, as well as other corn sweeteners, utilize the corn starch slurry produced by the wet milling process as their basic input.

An industrial enzyme, α-amylase produced from Bacillus spp., hydrolyzes corn starch to short chain dextrins and oligosaccharides. Bacterial α-amylases catalyze the hydrolysis of α-1,4 glucosidic linkages and act in a random but reproducible manner to reduce the polysaccharide molecular weight. Enzymatic liquefaction requires precise control of operating conditions like percentage of solids, temperature, time, pH and calcium level to ensure efficient hydrolysis, process economics and easier downstream processing operations.

A second enzyme, glucoamylase (also called amyloglucosidase),produced from fungi such as Apergillus, breaks dextrins and oligosaccharides to the simple sugar glucose.

A glucoamylase dosage is added to produce a maximum dextrose level in 1-4 days. Reaction time is inversely related to dose, so if a given dose yields maximum dextrose in 4 days, doubling or quadrupling the dose will reduce reaction time to 2 days or 1 day, respectively.

The product of these two enzymes is corn syrup also called glucose syrup. The third and relatively expensive enzyme used in the process is glucose isomerase (also called D-glucose ketoisomerase or D-xylose ketolisomerase),that converts glucose to fructose.

Fructose is superior to all nutritive sweeteners and humectants in controlling water in frozen system. Its water activity is low as compared to sucrose, sorbitol, dextrose, mannitol, etc. which makes it a better preservative.

Manufacturing of High-Fructose Corn Syrup 

Curdling of milk during manufacturing of cheese

In cheese manufacturing, milk is poured into big vats and a “starter culture” of bacteria is added to convert the lactose into lactic acid. Then an enzyme called rennet is added to curdle the milk. 

Curdling milk is the first step to separating the solids (fat and some protein), from the liquid (whey protein and water). There are two ways to curdle milk, either with acids, like lemon juice or vinegar or with an enzyme such as rennet.

The whey is removed, salt is added, and the curds are cut into smaller pieces and heated to release more whey. The additional whey is drained off, which leaves clumps of casein. Those clumps are pressed into molds and left to age (dry) for various periods of time.

During manufacturing of ricotta cheese, queso fresco, or Indian paneer, acid is used to curdle milk with the present of heat. Rennet contains enzymes that catalyze the degradation of casein proteins in milk. About 80 % of protein in milk is casein, the rest is whey proteins.

Curds that are formed with rennet have a gel-like consistency, allowing them to be stretched and molded unlike curds formed with acid. Cheeses with good melting qualities, such as mozzarella, are produced with rennet.

The lactic acid formed from the fermentation of the milk sugar caused the clotting of the major milk protein, casein. Casein micelles are the components from which cheese is made. The casein micelles determine the stability of milk products during heating, concentration and holding.

Caseins and whey proteins are major components of milk proteins which affect the cheese making process. Cheese yield quality, curd firmness, syneresis rate and moisture retention are affected by the casein portion of milk. Milk with a low casein content (2.27%), gave lower cheese yield per 100 kg milk (7.38 kg) than milk which was richer in casein (2.48%, yield 7.94 kg).
Curdling of milk during manufacturing of cheese

Date juice

Date is the most popular fruit in middle-east countries. The fruit is an important product in the world and plays a significant role in the economic and political life in date growing regions.

Date fruits are considered as a good source of sugars. It provides natural sugar in the form of glucose and fructose. According to studies conducted on the physicochemical properties of dietary fiber extracted from date flesh, the dietary fiber concentrates showed some functional properties in the food industry, e.g. high water-holding capacity, high oil-holding capacity, emulsifying, pseudoplasticity behavior of their suspensions, and gel formation.

Beside direct consumption of the whole dates, the fruits are traditionally used to prepare a wide range of product such as date juice concentrates (spread, syrup and liquid sugar), fermented date products (vinegar, organic acids) and date pastes for different uses e.g. bakery and confectionary.

Date juice is made by dissolving and diluting soluble solids of date in water and removing insoluble solids. In this operation, stirring, heating, and macerating the date can increase the yield of the process. This product is sometimes consumed as a drink. In contrast with other fruits, date juice cannot be extracted by pressing because of high total soluble solid content.

Juice is pasteurized at 85°C to inactivate the enzyme, cooled and centrifuged at 3000 rpm to get clear juice. Date juice was found to be rich in reducing sugars (16.1%) and total sugars (18.3%).

Date juice has considerable antioxidant and antimutagenic activity and contains strong free radical scavengers. Many products are being made of date juice including carbonated and non-carbonated beverages, ice cream, jam, and jelly as a sugar substitute.
Date juice

Evaporated milk processing

Evaporated milk is milk concentrated to one-half or less its original bulk by evaporation under high pressures and temperatures, and usually contains a specified amount of milk fat and solids. Evaporated milk is not sweetened; it is sterilized in cans.

The milk is piped through filters and into the pasteurizers. Here, the milk is quickly heated in one of two ways. The High Temperature Short Time method (HTST) subjects the milk to temperatures of 161 °F (71.6°C) for 15 seconds. The Ultra High Temperature (UHT) method heats the milk to 280°F (138°C) for two seconds.

Evaporation in the dairy industry is boiling off water from the solution. The milk is then evaporated to a specific dry solid concentration. The basic principle involved in operation of an evaporator is heating the milk to a temperature slightly above its boiling point corresponding to the vacuum in the evaporation chamber and separating water vapors from the concentrated mass, simultaneously condensing the vapors in a condenser.

The total dissolved solid concentration achieved in evaporation is critical as it affects the performance of subsequent operations and the quality of the final product. Converting milk into evaporated milk essentially entails reducing the volume of the milk by evaporation and subjecting the concentrate to a sterilizing heat treatment, usually in‐can.

The products to be evaporated are normally heat sensitive and can be destroyed by adding heat. To reduce this heat impact, evaporation takes place under vacuum, sometimes at temperatures the shortest possible residence time.

After evaporation, the milk is homogenized. Homogenization reduces the mean size of the fat globules so that they are distributed uniformly in the milk and do not rise to the top creating a creamy layer.
Evaporated milk processing

Fruit canning

Food is preserved by using methods that destroy or hinder the growth of microorganisms, such as molds, yeast and bacteria. These organisms may be present in the soil, on the food, in the air, on equipment or on work surfaces.

Yeasts, molds and bacteria must be destroyed during processing to prevent the food from spoiling. The correct amount of time to process varies with the kind of food. Sufficient heat for a specified length of time kills microorganisms and insures a safe product.

Canning is a method of preserving food by first sealing it in air-tight jars, cans or pouches, and then heating it to a temperature that destroys contaminating microorganisms that can either be of health or spoilage concern because of the danger posed by several spore-forming thermo-resistant microorganisms, such as Clostridium botulinum (the causative agent of botulism).

Canning is also to retain nutrients and optimum quality, preserve fruits and vegetables when at their peak of freshness. All fruit preserved by canning should be heat-processed to attain commercial sterility.

Whereas vegetables and certain other foods require the application of high temperature (240°F, 250°F) or higher for significance lengths of time to attain commercial sterility, most fruits sufficiently acid (PH usually below 4.5) that commercial sterility can be attained by heating the containers in boiling water to the point where all parts of the product reach a temperature of 180°F – 200°F.

After heat sterilization, containers are quickly cooled to prevent overcooking. Containers may be quick cooled by adding water to the cooker under air pressure or by conveying the containers from the cooker to a rotary cooler equipped with a cold-water spray.

Adding syrup to canned fruit helps to retain its flavor, color, and shape. It does not prevent spoilage of these foods.
Fruit canning

Production of instant tea

Instant tea powder is extensively used in large quantity in various tea premixes. The main objective to produce instant tea powder is to save time & effort of mankind in preparation of tea and feel the people the actual taste of tea as & when they want to have a cup of tea.

Instant tea Instant tea is used almost entirely to prepare iced tea. The basic objective in the manufacture of instant tea is to extract the water soluble solids from a pure tea brew, and convert them into a powdery form. The instant tea ingredient must be an extract processed from the leaves, buds, and tender stems of the varieties of the species Camellia sinensis or Thea sinensis known to be suitable for making tea for consumption as a beverage.

It is manufactured by a fairly exhaustive extraction of black tea with hot water. After separation of leaf matter from the extract, the latter is usually stripped of volatile substances (aroma) and concentrated.

Drying of such a concentrate without further processing would result in a product incompletely soluble in cold water, so the extract is precooled to precipitate cold water-insoluble fractions, known as 'cream'. These may be processed to improve solubility and then added to the main extract. The preserved aroma fraction is added back ta the total extract concentrate before spray or freeze drying.
Production of instant tea

Decaffeination of tea by ethyl acetate processing

To be considered truly decaffeinated for labeling purpose, tea must contain no more than 0.4 percent of caffeine by dry weight.

The most common decaffeinating solvent is ethyl acetate, a substance that occurs naturally in some fruits and non-toxic component of tea. The ethyl acetate decaffeination process uses the Haco Method, which is similar to the one used for coffee. Chemically, ethyl acetate breaks down into ethanol and acetic acid.

In this process, tea leaves are bathed in water washed with ethyl acetate to remove the caffeine and then dried.

This process leaves a maximum carrier residue of 1 ppm or less, and a maximum caffeine residue of 0.08 percent, dry weight. The tea is 99.9 percent decaffeinated at the end of the process, and has an 8 percent maximum water content when leaving the factory. Decaffeinated Ceylon Black is processed in this manner.

However, ethyl acetate is very difficult to remove after the decaffeination process and can leave a chemical taste.
Decaffeination of tea by ethyl acetate processing

Production process of macaroni

Macaroni is made from durum or other wheat. The U.S standard for noodle requires the addition of 5.5 percent egg and egg yolk.

The production process for macaroni consist of adding water to semolina, farina, flour and other ingredients to form stiff dough with about 30 percent moisture. Semolina, which is generally used in the manufacture of macaroni, is the purified middlings of durum wheat. Farina is the purified middlings of hard wheat other than durum and is often blended with semolina in the manufacturers of macaroni products.

These ingredients are mixed together for a short period of time, unloading the dough to obtain a plastic, homogenous mass.The doughs are blended in continuous mixers where dry ingredient feeders and metering pumps deliver the correct ration of the recipe.

The dough then is extrude through a die into various shapes and forms under 1,500 – 2, 000 psi pressures at 130 – 140 °F. The purpose of extruder is to knead the semolina/water dough and deliver it uniformly to the die.

The wet macaroni products are then dried at 95 – 122 °F to 1o-12 percent moisture. Some of the chief macaroni products are as follows: Macaroni, spaghetti, egg noodles, elbow macaroni, elbow noodles, alphabets, numerals and shells.

Most macaroni products were made by a batch process. That is the semolina and water were weighed and combined in a mixer of about 300 lbs capacity.
Production process of macaroni

Microwave processing of foods

Microwave ovens are mainly used for heating and reheating of foods; however, trends show that they are used increasingly also for cooking and defrosting.

Industrial scale microwave processing units have been developed for drying, precooking of meat, pasteurization of ready meals, and tempering of meat and fish. Microwave processing is generally characterized by uniform heating on a macroscopic scale and rapid heating rates, as opposed to conventional processing.

Microwave heating talks place throughout the volume of the product. This volumetric heat delivery leads to a much higher rate of heating than conventional methods, limited by the heat penetration from the heated surface to the bulk of the material.

Microwave processing is used in various industrial application:
*Pasteurization of liquid and viscous in the food industry
*Sterilization of liquid products on food/pharmaceutical sector
*Drying of casings in sausage production
*Heating of minced meat mixtures after the extruder for flashing
*Preheating of viscous products before spray dryers or vacuum dryers
Microwave processing of foods 

Feta cheese traditional method processing

Feta cheese belongs to the co-called ‘white pickled’ group of cheeses. It requires simple equipment for its manufacture and it keeps well.

Traditional Feta cheese is produced mainly in the mountainous regions of Greece from mixture of sheep’s milk and cow’s and/or goat’s milk. It is a table cheese, a favored ingredient in salads and pastries.

The milk is heated to 32-34 ° C and traditional rennet extract from lamb’s /kid’s abomasa is added to give a coagulum ready for cutting after 50 min. Rennet mixed is at 120 ml/1000g milk.

Coagulation process is essential for the development of a uniformed gel and finally Feta with firm texture. The coagulum is the cut into 2 -3 cm cubes, left for 5-10 min in whey, and then transferred gradually into circular molds, placed on an inclined table, and turned occasionally. This facilitates whey drainage.

The curd is stored overnight in a room maintained at 18 ° C and 85% relative humidity. At this temperature and RH a product of better texture and flavor is produced. The curd should achieve pH of 4.7 in about 24 hours

When the curd is firm enough, it is then removed from the molds, cut into slices and rubbed or sprinkled them with granulated salt. The cheeses are left until a slimy layer has formed within 1 to 2 weeks; then the surfaces are cleaned and the cheeses placed into barrels, leaving no space between slices.

Brine of 6-8% NCL is added and the barrels are closed. The cheese slices remain in ripening rooms until their pH reaches 4.4-4.6 and then transferred to cold stores at 3-4 C. Maturations of Feta cheese actually begins before the curd making is finished and can be separated into two phases. The first one takes place simultaneously with dry salting in the ripening plants, at 18 ° C while the second one occurs during the storage of Feta in refrigeration.

Usually formed in square-shape blocks, Feta cheese has a somewhat grainy consistency (and is therefore crumbly), usually is white and has tangy and salty flavor.

Feta cheese can only be produced under strict product specifications in certain areas of Greece. Feta is registered as a Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) product.
Feta cheese traditional method processing

Production of chocolate

Although it is not intended to describe in detail the many specialized techniques used in chocolate making, certain steps in the process are critical in determining both quality and cost of the finished goods.

Whole beans are roasted for a few minutes in order first to develop their flavor and second to loosen the shells form the nibs.

After passing though cracking rolls, the nib and shell are separated in a winnower.

The nib is then ground; the heat produced in the process is sufficient to melt the cocoa butter and this results in cocoa “liquor” in which fine cocoa particles are dispersed in a continuous fat phase.

Some of the liquor will go straight to chocolate making. The rest will go though hydraulic presses that reduce the butter content of the cocoa from its level of about 50% to a level of 20% or lower.

The press-cake will subsequently be pulverized for cocoa powder, and the expressed cocoa butter go to chocolate making.
Production of chocolate

Effects on fat-soluble vitamins during food storage and processing

The most significant losses of vitamins occur in raw materials during storage and as a consequence of handling, food processing and extending the shelf-life of nutritive foodstuffs.

The chemical properties of vitamins dictate the mechanism and extent of losses during processing. Fat soluble vitamins are degraded by a distinctly different set of chemical processes than water soluble vitamins.

In generally fat-soluble vitamin can be affected by physical factors (temperature, sunlight and UV light radiation, oxygen/air) chemical factors (radicals, peroxides, metal ions, Cu2+, Fe3+) and the biochemical factors (enzymes, mainly oxidases, eg.g lipoxygenase).

Fat–soluble vitamins are particularly susceptible to oxidation due to all of these factors and the process is further accelerated by the presence of oxidized fat. The fat-soluble vitamins, particularly A, D and E are sensitive to oxidation during processing and storage. The fat soluble vitamins and vitamin processes (carotenoids and tocotrienes) are destroyed by autocatalytic processes similar to these experienced by unsaturated fatty acids.

The fat-soluble vitamins are generally less heat-labile than the water soluble ones, but they are susceptible to degradation at high temperature especially in the presence of oxygen.

Certain fat-soluble (particularly vitamin A and the carotenoids) experience geometric isomerization upon thermal processing with losses of vitamin value. All the fat-soluble vitamins are lost at a varying degree during thermal processing with the exception of vitamin K.

Vitamin A has little loss during cooking but presence of acid it becomes rancid. No loss during canning and processing.

Effects on fat-soluble vitamins during food storage and processing

Bacterial contamination during chocolate processing

Chocolate is the solid or semi-solid food prepared by finely grinding cocoa. It must have a minimum of 50% fat.

During fermentation process many types of contamination may occur during this primary part of manufacture of chocolate. At the peak of fermentation the temperature builds up, which promotes the growth of bacteria and molds.

The raw fermented cocoa beans arriving in the factory have very high bacterial counts and during the cleaning, roasting and winnowing process, dust is produced that can contaminate finished products.

In the process of converting the press cake to powder, there is ample opportunity for it to become reinfected and further cross-infection can occur in the user’s factory. Another way in which the bacteria count can be increased is through the flavor addition.

Sanitation is a major problem, especially since many chocolate products are finished by hand-dipping; employee sanitation practices are, therefore, very important to prevent product contamination. These products are generally consumed by children, who are highly susceptible to enteric infections.

In chocolate factories, water plays an important role in maintaining the temperature of liquid chocolate masses in pipes and storage tanks as well as for tempering and cooling. Microleaks may lead to contamination of the product and it is therefore necessary to guarantee the absence of Salmonella by appropriate disinfection methods.

Recontamination from the processing environment is a further possibility and control can be achieved by an adequate layout of production lines allowing the physical separation of unclean, potentially contaminated zones from clean zones where roasted beans are further processed.
Bacterial contamination during chocolate processing 

Post-harvest of pistachio

Harvesting of pistachio is some regions of the world depend on hand labor. But in California, when most of the nuts are ripe and begin splitting, they are mechanically harvested, cleaned and placed in bins for transport to a processing plant.

Pistachios destined for the fresh market are cooled straight after harvest. All sticks, leaves and other debris and reject nuts are removed before they are graded, hand sorted and packed into polystyrene. The nuts should be stored in a cool room at all times.

Pistachios destined for sale as dried nuts are hulled as soon as possible. Freshly harvested nuts have a moisture content of around 45%. After harvest the nuts are cleaned and dried to around 5% using forced-air drying. Natural air drying can be employed in low humidity and high temperature conditions.

Then hull of the pistachio must be removed within 24 hr of harvest to prevent shell staining. Stained pistachio nuts are less attractive to consumers and have higher incidence of aflatoxin contamination.

After drying, electronic sorters cull out blemished nuts. Good quality splits are graded into four sizes. To achieve the most uniform grades, the size graders operate via a combination of round and slotted holes.  This followed by roasting, salting and packaging. Around 90% of consumer-packed nuts from California are roasted and salted in the shell.

Pistachio is widely used in the pastry, confectionery and ice-cream industries for its pleasing flavor and green color.
Post-harvest of pistachio

Type of material for processing equipment

Processing equipment intended to produce safe food should at least meet the basic hygienic requirements. It must be constructed with acceptable materials from the perspectives of sanitary practice and chemical migration to foods.

Materials of construction used for equipment must be completely compatible with the food product, environment, cleaning chemicals and disinfectants and the methods of cleaning and disinfections.

Carbon steel cannot be used in the food contact are due to its corrosion sensitivity especially by salt and chlorine-containing bleach.

The preferred material for food contact surfaces is stainless steel because it is strong, easily, cleaned and resistant to rust and many cleaning/sanitizing compounds. Stainless steel AISI SS 304 (L) can be used for the construction of food processing equipment and food processing support system in applications with low chloride level, near neutral pH and at low temperature.

The best known application copper is vessels, traditionally used in many breweries and distilleries. Copper does not relay constitute a food safety problem but it is recommended to avoid direct contact with copper utensils, as they can cause unacceptable organoleptic effects. Moreover, alkaline materials used on copper equipment may cause a discoloration of foods. It is generally undesirable to use copper in food processing equipment, even though it is among the best conductor of heat available.

Monel metal an alloy consisting mainly nickel and copper, is suitable for food processing equipment but is expensive.

Aluminium conducts heat well but subject to corrosive when contacting alkaline materials or fruit acids.

Generally, high quality stainless steels, plastics and other materials approved for food contact are used. If care is taken in selecting equipment and contact surface materials taking into account the nature of the food being processed, there is minimal chance of harmful contamination.

Misuse of equipment or use of materials incompatible with the material being processed may result in contamination.
Type of material for processing equipment

Processing of cherry wine

Cherry wines are usually best made from sour cherries since sweet ones contain too little acid. As with grape wines the best cherry wines are made from top quality fruit, ideally a bit overripened to maximize color and sugar. Brown rot, a common problem in overripened cherries will ruin cherry wine and must be avoided.

Late-picked Montmorency cherries that are immediately crushed give a good wine. Cherrie should be crushed in a grape crusher destemmer- must pump machine with the crusher rollers separate so as to minimize cracking of the pits.

Up to 10% of the pits may be broken to enhance flavor. The fruit juice is called ‘must’. The must should be treated with SO2, inoculated with wine yeast and fermented like red grape wine.

Initially aerate the must to promote vigorous yeast growth. Later on, maintain anaerobic condition for rapid production of ethanol.

The pulp must be pressed and left to drain. Pressing is done after 2 or 3 days of skin contact, sugar is added and the wine fermented dry. The skin color is readily extracted during fermentation. Pressing as soon as possible will help to reduce the bitter herbaceous skin character and almond flavor from the pits.

Generally, fermentation requires 25-30 ° C temperature and around 10-15 days. The ethanol produced varies from 7 to 15%. After fermentation allow to settle yeast and other debris, filter it, and pasteurize it.

A good cherry wine is smooth and medium sweet, light but with full cherry flavors. The color depends of the types of cherries used.

Cherry wines do not keep well and develop an off flavor after about 18 months.
Processing of cherry wine

Process of beer brewing

Beer is a staple beverage of many consumers. Brewing is the production of beer through steeping a starch source in water and then fermenting with yeast.

The brewer begins with malted barley or another grain cereal. Malted barley is dried, sprouted or germinated barley which the brewer grinds and then heats with warm water, which converts the starches to sugars.

The actual brewing process takes place in two distinct phases, going first from warm to hot and then from cool to cold. Besides sanitation, heating and boiling also helps to prepare all the sugars and proteins for proper fermentation, creating a number of the good flavors in beer.

The brew-house operations yield a fermentable liquid called wort after adding hops.  This takes most of a working day.

After being boiled and cooled, the wort is fermented into beer, which takes approximately a week.  Hops give beer its distinctive bitter flavor. It also helps remove some solids, which are precipitated out.

The younger beer is chilled, aged, filtered and carbonated. It is then ready to be packaged into kegs, bottles or cans.

It is done in a brewery by a brewer, and the brewing industry is part of most western economies.
Process of beer brewing

Processing of animal fats

For centuries animal fat was the principle edible source. Handing and processing animal fats have evolved from the primitive to state-of-the-art processing equipment and technology. Processing of animal fat for edible use may ranges from simple to complex.

If fat is selectively removed from the animal carcass and carefully rendered, the result product can be simply filtered to remove particulate.

For more complex products with more rigorous quality specifications, the complete processing train of caustic refining, bleaching, hydrogenation, blending and deodorization is used.

Animal fats recovered from fatty tissues by cooking processes known as rendering. The two predominant rendering processes are wet and dry rendering.

In wet rendering, the fatty tissue is heated under steam pressure, thus rupturing the cells and liberating the fat.  The lard produced by this method of rendering is known as ‘prime steam lard’. In addition to lard, tallow and whale oil also usually steam rendered. The wet process is preferred for edible animal fats.

In dry rendering, the fatty tissue is heated in jacketed drums with agitation until the fats is released. Presently, centrifuges are used to separates the fat from water and protein. The dry rendering process is preferred for inedible products.
Processing of animal fats

Ripening of cheese

Cheese ripening is a slow and consequently an expensive process. It us a biochemical process which takes place under physical, microbial and enzymatic conditions. A nearly tasteless raw cheese is converted into a smooth, tasty finished product having characteristics properties.

The expense of cheese ripening arises principally from the inventory cost associated with holding a large amount of cheese in storage and the capital cost of providing a ripening facility adequate to hold sufficient cheese during ripening.

Traditionally, cheese was ripened in caves or cellars, probably at 15-20°C for much of the year.

Since the introduction of mechanical refrigeration for cheese-ripening rooms in the 1940s, the use of a controlled ripening temperature has become normal practice in modern factories.

Ripening usually involves the softening of cheese texture, as a consequence of the hydrolysis of the casein matrix, changes in the water-binding of the curd and changes in pH.

Cheese reacts by a hydrolytic denaturation through various stages, which can take place simultaneously, proceeding until the stage of basic molecules, i.e. amino acid.

During ripening, cheese flavor develops due to the production of a wide range of sapid compounds by the biochemical pathways.
Ripening of cheese